供给与产品

3.1.1 一个案例：ITN

美国独立交通行动网络（Independent Transport Network，ITN）的设立，旨在“为老年人提供便利的交通服务”。

• 采用会员制+慈善供给：可以缴纳会费，也可以乘坐由志愿者提供的交通服务；
• 老年人支付的费用可以由自己承担、商店、教会、家人承担；只要提前预约即可；
• 会员可以通过提供ITN志愿服务来获取积分，积分可以用来兑换，也可以用来赠予（给自己家族内的老年人使用），也可以用来购买物品。

ITN的存在是因为老龄化带来的社会问题：老年人出行问题；之后，ITN的发展牵动更多的社会资源：

• 利用积分来联接志愿者、会员和商家
• 通过交换使得社区乃至整个社会获益；

更多详情：http://www.itnamerica.org/

NGOCN的报道：http://www.ngocn.net/news/28515.html

3.1.2 营销供给

在NPO活动中，默认情况下，目标受众有意无意地认为被倡导的行为是积极的。因此，NPO在营销中应该提供引人瞩目的价值主张。

营销供给 之价值主张：

适用于所有目标受众的提议，包含积极结果与消极结果的可取组合的价值主张。其前提是当且仅当目标受众采取期望的行动。

• 积极：提供的有形产品或无形服务；
• 消极：受众需要付出成本；

营销供给 之产品

传统的营销中有4P：product , price , place , promotion .

在NPO营销中，这4P有些不适用：

1. 产品营销：在NPO中不是主要核心，而可能是某些活动（如筹资）的附属品
2. 产品促销：容易陷入自吹自擂的、以组织为中心的营销，与以客户为中心的理念相违背
3. 要让目标受众行动才是NPO营销的核心；因此，应该是让目标受众来思考供给、分析实际目标以及与营销者交流，来分析潜在的成本和收益。

因此，将产品定义为：

以有形的方式向市场提供并且能够提供有价值的东西。

3.1.3 服务营销

绝大多数NPO组织都是提供服务的机构。在进行营销之前，先了解服务是什么，及其特性有哪些。

服务就是由个人或者组织向目标受众提供的价值主张，这种价值主张在本质上是无形的，并且不会产生任何实体的所有权归属，它的产生与有形产品有关，也可能无关。

服务的特性

• 无形的；
• 与生产者不可分割；
• 其特征易变；
• 可消亡性
• 生产过程依赖于目标受众参与

应对上述特性，挑战如下：

• 无形服务如何可视化？
• 与生产者不可分割性带来的用户体验无法保证；
• 如何管理服务的可变性：通过员工培训、自动化服务系统，足够多的受众满意度等进行监控；
• 管理消亡性：高峰和非高峰需求的价格控制导流，互补性服务、创建预约系统；高峰期雇佣兼职员工；提高参与度（如高峰期，在医院中由患者自己填写表格）
• 帮助目标受众消费：按受众的能力来调整服务，有良好的指导，让目标受众有识别能力，建立长期的关系。

3.1.4 供给（新产品）开发流程

	新供给	同类新供给	不同类已有供给
已有市场	1.a.市场渗透 b.成本降低 c.维持现状	4.供给扩张	7.供给发展
同类新市场	2.市场扩张	5.连续性多样化	8.供给多样化
不同类新市场	3.市场开发	6.市场多样化	9.极端多样化

流程可以是这样的：

1. 想法形成；
2. 想法筛选；
3. 概念开发与检验；
4. 战略营销制定；
5. 商务分析；
6. 供给开发
7. 市场检验；
8. 引入市场

新想法来自何方

• 同类组织的拜访，参阅网站
• 竞争者的会议、网站；
• 赞助人的提案
• 期刊与杂志、会议与论坛
• 目标消费者与中间商、雇员
• 互联网

想法的筛选参考标准

1. 市场规模如何
2. 必要的财政投资规模
3. 对管理时间和精力的可能要求
4. 如果失败，成本几何？

参考网站：Standford Social Innovation Review

3.1.5 供给与创新生命周期

供给的生命周期一般是这样的：引进—增长—成熟—衰退。

而有些供给可能会通过改变而进入新的周期。

Diffusion of innovations

Everett Rogers 曲线：2.5%的人是创新者，13.5%是早期使用者，34%是早期大众使用者；后面的34%是后期大众使用者，16%是迟缓者。

The key elements in diffusion research are:

Element	Definition
Innovation	Innovations are a broad category, relative to the current knowledge of the analyzed unit. Any idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption could be considered an innovation available for study.
Adopters	Adopters are the minimal unit of analysis. In most studies, adopters are individuals, but can also be organizations (businesses, schools, hospitals, etc.), clusters within social networks, or countries.
Communication channels	Diffusion, by definition, takes place among people or organizations. Communication channels allow the transfer of information from one unit to the other.Communication patterns or capabilities must be established between parties as a minimum for diffusion to occur.
Time	The passage of time is necessary for innovations to be adopted; they are rarely adopted instantaneously. In fact, in the Ryan and Gross (1943) study on hybrid corn adoption, adoption occurred over more than ten years, and most farmers only dedicated a fraction on their fields to the new corn in the first years after adoption.
Social system	The social system is the combination of external influences (mass media, organizational or governmental mandates) and internal influences (strong and weak social relationships, distance from opinion leaders).There are many roles in a social system, and their combination represents the total influences on a potential adopter.

Characteristics of innovations

Potential adopters

• evaluate an innovation on its relative advantage (the perceived efficiencies gained by the innovation relative to current tools or procedures), its compatibility with the pre-existing system, its complexity or difficulty to learn, its trialability or testability, its potential for reinvention (using the tool for initially unintended purposes), and its observed effects.
• These qualities interact and are judged as a whole. For example, an innovation might be extremely complex, reducing its likelihood to be adopted and diffused, but it might be very compatible with a large advantage relative to current tools. Even with this high learning curve, potential adopters might adopt the innovation anyway.

Studies also identify other characteristics of innovations, but these are not as common as the ones that Rogers lists above. The fuzziness of the boundaries of the innovation can impact its adoption. Specifically, innovations with a small core and large periphery are easier to adopt. Innovations that are less risky are easier to adopt as the potential loss from failed integration is lower.Innovations that are disruptive to routine tasks, even when they bring a large relative advantage, might not be adopted because of added instability. Likewise, innovations that make tasks easier are likely to be adopted.Closely related to relative complexity, knowledge requirements are the ability barrier to use presented by the difficulty to use the innovation. Even when there are high knowledge requirements, support from prior adopters or other sources can increase the chances for adoption.

Characteristics of individual adopters

Like innovations, adopters have been determined to have traits that affect their likelihood to adopt an innovation. A bevy of individual personality traits have been explored for their impacts on adoption, but with little agreement.Ability and motivation, which vary on situation unlike personality traits, have a large impact on a potential adopter's likelihood to adopt an innovation. Unsurprisingly, potential adopters who are motivated to adopt an innovation are likely to make the adjustments needed to adopt it.Motivation can be impacted by the meaning that an innovation holds; innovations can have symbolic value that encourage (or discourage) adoption.First proposed by Ryan and Gross (1943), the overall connectedness of a potential adopter to the broad community represented by a city.Potential adopters who frequent metropolitan areas are more likely to adopt an innovation. Finally, potential adopters who have the power or agency to create change, particularly in organizations, are more likely to adopt an innovation than someone with less power over his choices.

Characteristics of organizations

Organizations face more complex adoption possibilities because organizations are both the aggregate of its individuals and its own system with a set of procedures and norms.Three organizational characteristics match well with the individual characteristics above: tension for change (motivation and ability), innovation-system fit (compatibility), and assessment of implications (observability). Organizations can feel pressured by a tension for change. If the organization's situation is untenable, it will be motivated to adopt an innovation to change its fortunes. This tension often plays out among its individual members. Innovations that match the organization's pre-existing system require fewer coincidental changes and are easy to assess are more likely to be adopted.The wider environment of the organization, often an industry, community, or economy, exerts pressures on the organization, too. Where an innovation is diffusing through the organization's environment for any reason, the organization is more likely to adopt it. Innovations that are intentionally spread, including by political mandate or directive, are also likely to diffuse quickly.